Vol/51 No/4 2012AUGUST/SEPTEMBERTheLinguist29REVIEWScapacity, advocated since the 1950s by theChomskian school, was definitively flawed. Everett, together with a growing numberof linguists and cognitive scientists, favoursthe idea that language is acquired throughthe normal mental processes wherebyhumans learn a range of different skills, ratherthan being the product of a specific'language instinct' (Steven Pinker's term) or'language organ'. For the author, language isa tool, devised and used by humans forpurposes of communication, just as we haveinvented other tools to fulfil other functions. In .The Cultural ToolEverett sets out toexplain his findings to a non-specialistaudience. His aim is twofold: to examine andreject the arguments for Universal Grammar,and to put forward his own theory of languageacquisition, which he sums up as: cognition +culture + communication = language. Alongthe way he provides numerous anecdotesand illustrations from his experiences amongpreliterate Amazonian communities, notablythe Pirahã tribe and their remarkable language.In his analysis of Universal Grammar, Everettdraws not only on his own work but on that ofmany other linguists and social scientists. Theresult is a carefully reasoned description ofwhy Chomsky's 50-year-old theory is strugglingto hold up in the face of more recent,technologically advanced linguistic andcognitive research. Particularly interesting isthe notion of 'Construction Grammar', inwhich language acquisition is regarded asbeing based not on the painstakingaggregation of individual nouns, verbs,adjectives, etc, via a complex generativegrammar, but rather on the perception andgrouping of units -or signs -which may be aword, phrase or sentence and in which noChomsky-style parsing is necessary.Language: The Cultural Tool will beenjoyed by anyone wishing to find out howthings currently stand in the language instinctv. cognition+culture debate. But Everett'sbook is more than a linguistic treatise: it is animpassioned defence of cultural diversity, anda tribute to the extraordinary capacity of thehuman mind to adapt to its surroundings andcreate the cognitive tools that have enabledhumans to survive this far.Ross Smith MCILLanguage: Thecultural toolDaniel EverettProfile Books,2012, 320 pp;ISBN 978-1846682674Paperback,£14.99Daniel Everett is an American scholar whocombines a distinguished university career intheoretical linguistics with a lengthy trackrecord of field work among indigenouscommunities in Brazil. During decades ofresearch on little-known Amazonian languageshe came to the conclusion that the theory ofUniversal Grammar and innate linguisticself-study aid, both for students on taughtprogrammes and for independent learners. It consists of 31 clearly-structured chapters,in which all the basic points of Russiangrammar are discussed, including 12 chaptersdevoted to verbs and conjugation (withindividual chapters on participles, gerunds,verbs of motion and reflexive verbs) and ninechapters on nouns and declension (with acomprehensive and lucid description ofgrammatical case). All other parts of speechare covered, and practical information onspelling, punctuation and word order isintroduced. In addition, the authors providea concise glossary of linguistic terms inRussian, with their English equivalents andinformation on their use, as well as shortexercises at the end of each chapter. A key selling point is the highly accessible,user-friendly and engaging style in which thebook is written. The authors assume noprevious knowledge of grammar orlinguistics, and they explain complex pointsof Russian grammar in a straightforward andnon-technical manner. Readers not only learnabout the formation and use of grammaticalforms but are also given definitions of wordsand phrases, such as noun, clause andnominative case, which are not familiar to alllanguage learners. In this respect, Da!is moreeffective than many competing works aimedat the same target audience.The focus on aspects of Russian grammarthat pose particular problems to nativeEnglish speakers is very effective. Manycases, such as irregular plural forms ofmasculine and neuter nouns, 'fleeting'vowels and negative pronouns, have beencarefully selected and an 'eye' icon identifiesthem as areas that merit special attention. The overview of spelling rules, descriptionsof verbal aspect and verbs of motion, andchapters on impersonal sentences and theessentials of Russian syntax are particularlyuseful. Other noteworthy features, includingpractical tips by Mr Smirnoff, 'the friendly faceof Russian grammar', and the categorisationof grammar points into three difficulty levels,add to the appeal. A comprehensive andengaging grammar manual, Da! is a welcomeaddition to the English-language literature onRussian grammar and should be an effectivereference work for students of all levels. James WilsonDa! A PracticalGuide toRussianGrammarTatiana Filosofova & Marion SpöringHodderEducationPublishers,2012, 288 pp;ISBN 978-1444148787Paperback,£21.99Aimed at students at the beginner andintermediate level, Da!is appropriate for useas a supplement to grammar materials inRussian course books, at schools, colleges anduniversities, and is a useful reference work and

30 TheLinguistAUGUST/SEPTEMBERwww.iol.org.ukOPINION & COMMENTEmail with your viewsAncient treasures by the bookIn all archaeological explorations wheresomeapparentform of writing is involved,the linguist may well become the mostimportant person in the archaeological team.If it had not been for Dr Thomas Young inBritain and Jean-Francois Champollion inFrance, both working in the early 19thcentury, we might still be mystified as to themeaning of the almost limitless hieroglyphsthat have been found throughout ancientEgypt. It was linguists who found the key tothe detailed history of more than 4,000 yearsof Egyptian civilisation.And there are many more writtenlanguages, already discovered, which are stillwaiting for talented linguists to decipher.Tuscany is covered with inscriptions from thepowerful Etruscan city-state civilisation thatpreceded the Romans in Italy, which no onehas been able to translate; there is somesuggestion that Etruscan developed fromancient Albanian or perhaps the reverse, butthere is insufficient proof for this. In Asia, theexcavations of what was the mighty IndusValley empire have revealed copiousexamples of writing, even huge writtenboards, but nobody has yet been able todiscover what the writing means.Prehistoric finds, often in caves, revealscratchings and paintings that apparentlywere intended to convey meaning and werethus languages. Most of these are still amystery to us. I am interested in another form ofarchaeology -investigating what is inside thecovers of ancient books. Throughout theages, bookbinders have used, for theirbinding materials, the pages from unwantedbooks or manuscripts, or whatever sparepaper was handy. At the time of use, thesematerials were of no interest, but today theymay be of vital importance. One of the mostfamous Anglo Saxon texts, the FinsburhFragment, was found in the binding of a17th-century book when the bindingdisintegrated.Many bindings may contain amazingthings, just waiting for translators,cryptographers and specialists in foreignlanguages and linguistics to reveal them. Thepotential of ancient book covers throughoutthe world, and even in the British Isles alone,is rather like having the whole of Egypt andthe Middle East, China and South Americabefore us, completely unexcavated andunexplored. It is time for the administratorsof large libraries and ancient collections tolook at what they have got. And we linguistswill be close by, ready to help!Maurice Varney FCILOne and only?It is true that business needs the State to meetits responsibility to provide for languageseducation, but this does not mean thatglobalisation (in its current capitalist/free-market form) would not be facilitated if oneand the same language were spoken by ourplanet's total populace. The fact that English isspoken so extensively, serving as an unofficialglobal language, is a natural outcome of theneed for a common linguistic platform forprofoundly economic reasons. Without acommon linguistic pivot (English, in our currentcase), companies would be practically unableto carry out their daily business actions; or thecost for such actions would not be viable.Globalisation is founded on the principlesof capitalism, which is optimally served by afree-market economy. This, in turn, strives andstruggles to facilitate mobility in all areas ofproduction. And I'm asking: Is there ANYfactor of production that would not befacilitated were they to be carried out over auniform (ie, single/global) linguistic platform?The fact that English has not gained 'official'status as the one and only world language isthe outcome of conscious efforts on behalf ofheads of state to impede this globalisationprocess by raising language barriers that'protect' their sovereign economies/fiscalpolicies against the global melting pot -ie, by controlling the flow of factors ofproduction (especially human capital) througha refusal to adopt a global linguistic platform.Dr Fotios Karamitroglou, Athens University of Economics & Business© ISTOCKPHOTOClarification'In the Radiation Zone' (TL51,3) drewsubstantially on an article first published inthe spring 2007 issue of Communicator(see www.istc.org.uk).I am interested in attending an evening classin London that would prepare me for A-levelPortuguese but I have not been able to findone, nor even a school where I could sit forthe exam. I would be grateful for any advice.Maria Grazia Marino MCILA-levels: auxílio